The Gandhian Era (1917-1947)

Introduction

Before launching nationwide mass movements, Mahatma Gandhi tested his philosophy of Satyagraha through three localized struggles between 1917 and 1918. These movements brought him closer to the masses and established his leadership in the Indian freedom struggle.

Major Movements

Rowlatt Act (March 1919)

The British government passed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919, popularly known as the Rowlatt Act.

Provisions

• Arrest without warrant
• Detention without trial for up to two years
• Restrictions on press and political activities
• Trial without jury

Reaction

• Widespread outrage across India
• Gandhi called for nationwide hartal on 6 April 1919
• Beginning of mass political awakening under Gandhi

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

Background

• Punjab was tense after Rowlatt protests
• Arrest of local leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal
• Large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh on Baisakhi

The Massacre

• Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer entered with 50 soldiers
• Ordered firing without warning
• 1,650 rounds fired over about 10 minutes

Casualties

• Official death toll: 379
• Indian estimates: Over 1,000
• Men, women, and children killed

Impact

• Shattered Indian faith in British justice
• Moderates turned into nationalists
• Created permanent divide between British and Indians
• Marked turning point in Indian freedom struggle

Context

• Rowlatt Act (1919)
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)
• Failure of British government to punish those responsible
• Khilafat issue after World War I

The treatment of the Ottoman Caliph by the British angered Indian Muslims and created an opportunity for Hindu-Muslim unity under Gandhi's leadership.

Khilafat Movement

• Led by Ali Brothers – Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali
• Objective: Protect Ottoman Caliphate
• Gandhi supported it to promote Hindu-Muslim unity

Launch of Non-Cooperation

• Calcutta Session – September 1920
• Nagpur Session – December 1920 (formal adoption)
• Leadership: Mahatma Gandhi

Programme of Non-Cooperation

• Surrender of titles and honorary posts
• Boycott of government schools, colleges, courts, and foreign goods
• Refusal to attend government functions
• Withdrawal from government service (gradual)
• Non-payment of taxes (final stage)

Impact

• Transformed Congress into a mass organization
• Students left government institutions
• Lawyers gave up legal practice
• Foreign cloth boycotted; promotion of Swadeshi
• First large-scale mass participation in national movement

The Incident – 5 February 1922

• Location: Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur district, United Provinces (present-day Uttar Pradesh)
• Protesters clashed with police during the Non-Cooperation Movement
• Police opened fire on demonstrators
• Enraged crowd set fire to police station
• 22–23 policemen were killed inside the station

Gandhi's Response

• Deeply disturbed by the violence
• Believed the nation was not ready for non-violent struggle
• On 12 February 1922, called off the Non-Cooperation Movement
• Decision opposed by several leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru

Aftermath

• Gandhi arrested on 10 March 1922
• Charged with sedition
• Sentenced to six years imprisonment
• Released in 1924 after appendicitis operation

Context

• Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement (1922) led to political disillusionment.
• Debate within Congress over council entry.
• Pro-Changers: Favoured entering legislative councils to obstruct government from within.
• No-Changers: Opposed council entry; supported Gandhian constructive programmes.

Formation

• Date: 1 January 1923
• Founded by: Chittaranjan Das (C.R. Das) and Motilal Nehru
• Official Name: Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party
• Functioned within the Indian National Congress

Objective

• Enter Imperial Legislative Assembly and Provincial Councils
• Oppose and obstruct government functioning
• Expose weaknesses of constitutional reforms

Performance

• Performed well in 1923 elections
• Strong presence in Bengal and Central Provinces
• Often dominated debates in Central Legislative Assembly
• Effectively criticized colonial administration

Decline

• Death of C.R. Das in 1925 weakened leadership
• Internal divisions emerged
• Gradual merger back into mainstream Congress
• Political focus shifted after arrival of Simon Commission (1927)

Simon Commission (1927–28)

The British government appointed a statutory commission headed by Sir John Simon to review the working of the Government of India Act, 1919 and suggest constitutional reforms.

The Insult

• No Indian member in the commission
• All-white British commission

Reaction

• Indian National Congress and other parties boycotted the commission
• Protests across India with slogan "Simon Go Back"
• Lala Lajpat Rai fatally injured during lathi charge in Lahore

Nehru Report (1928)

In response to Lord Birkenhead’s challenge, an All-Parties Conference appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru to draft a constitution for India.

Major Recommendations

1. India to be granted Dominion Status
2. Federal system with bicameral legislature at the centre
3. Abolition of separate electorates; reservation based on population

Reaction

• Accepted by Indian National Congress
• Rejected by Muslim League
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah drafted Fourteen Points (1929)
• Demanded retention of separate electorates

🔹 Context

• The British government did not accept the Nehru Report's demand for Dominion Status.
• The deadline set by the Congress (31 December 1929) passed without any positive response.

🔹 Lahore Session (December 1929)

• The historic annual session of the Indian National Congress was held at Lahore.
• It was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru.

🔹 Poorna Swaraj Declaration

🔹 Adoption of Tricolour

• The Tricolour Flag was formally adopted.
• The flag was hoisted as a symbol of complete independence.

🔹 Independence Day Declaration

• Millions of Indians took a pledge to fight for complete freedom from British rule.

🔹 Background

• The movement was launched to achieve Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
• In January 1930, Mahatma Gandhi presented an 11-point ultimatum to the Viceroy Lord Irwin.
• Key demands included:
  • Reduction of land revenue
  • Abolition of salt tax
  • Cutting military expenditure
• When the demands were rejected, the movement was launched.

A. Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)

• On 12 March 1930, Gandhi began the march from Sabarmati Ashram with 78 followers.
• Destination: Coastal village of Dandi (Gujarat).
• Distance covered: 240 miles in 24 days.
• On 6 April 1930, Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up natural salt.

B. Spread of the Movement

✔ Wide Participation

• Movement spread nationwide, including rural areas.

✔ Women's Participation

• Kasturba Gandhi
• Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
• Sarojini Naidu

✔ Forms of Protest

• Boycott of foreign goods
• Refusal to pay taxes (especially Gujarat & Eastern India)
• Picketing liquor shops and government institutions

✔ Government Response

C.Round Table Conferences & Gandhi-Irwin Pact

1️⃣ First Round Table Conference (Nov 1930 – Jan 1931)

• Held in London.
• Boycotted by Congress.
• Achieved little.

2️⃣ Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931)

• Congress agreed to attend Second Round Table Conference.
• Government released political prisoners.
• Right to make salt for local use conceded.
• Movement temporarily called off.

3️⃣ Second Round Table Conference (Sep – Dec 1931)

• Gandhi attended as sole Congress representative.
• Dominated by communal question (separate electorates demand).
• No concrete outcome.

4️⃣ Revival & Suppression (1932)

• New Viceroy: Lord Willingdon.
• Fresh crackdown launched.
• Movement revived in January 1932.
• Brutally suppressed; leaders arrested.

D. Poona Pact (1932)

Background

• British announced Communal Award (August 1932).
• Proposed separate electorates for Depressed Classes.

Gandhi's Fast

• Fast unto death began on 20 September 1932.

The Pact

• Signed between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malaviya.
• Separate electorates replaced with reserved seats in joint electorates.
• Gandhi ended his fast.

🔹 Key Features

• Provincial Autonomy
  • Abolished dyarchy in provinces.
  • Granted autonomy to provinces.
  • Elected Indian legislatures gained control over provincial subjects.
  • Ministers made responsible to legislatures.
• Federal Scheme at the Centre
  • Proposed federation of British Indian provinces and princely states.
  • Never implemented as princely states refused to join.
• Dyarchy at the Centre
  • Introduced dyarchy at federal level.
  • Not implemented.
• Separate Electorates
  • Extended to depressed classes, women, and labour.
• Establishment of RBI
  • Provided for establishment of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

🔹 Elections (1937)

• Elections were held under the Government of India Act, 1935.
• The Indian National Congress campaigned on a radical platform.

🔹 Results

• Congress secured a clear majority in 7 out of 11 provinces:
  • Madras
  • United Provinces
  • Central Provinces
  • Bihar
  • Orissa
  • Bombay
  • Assam
• In other provinces, Congress emerged as the largest party.

🔹 Congress Ministries

• Congress formed governments in the majority provinces.
• Remained in office for about 28 months (1937–1939).

🔹 Work of the Ministries

• Release of political prisoners.
• Restoration of civil liberties.
• Agrarian reforms to relieve peasants.
• Promotion of basic and primary education.
• Encouragement to Khadi and village industries.

🔹 Resignation (1939)

A. Cripps Mission (March 1942)

🔹 Background

• During World War II, Japan advanced towards India’s borders.
• Under pressure from allies (USA & China), Britain sent a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps.
• Objective: Secure Indian cooperation in the war effort.

🔹 Proposals

• Grant of Dominion Status after the war.
• Formation of a Constituent Assembly to frame a new constitution.
• Provinces unwilling to accept the constitution could form a separate union (indirect acceptance of Pakistan demand).

🔹 Rejection

• Rejected by both Congress and Muslim League.
• Congress objected to:
  • No immediate transfer of power.
  • Provision enabling partition.

B. Quit India Movement (August 1942)

🔹 Call for Action

• Failure of Cripps Mission + worsening war situation.
• Congress launched its final mass struggle.

🔹 Wardha Meeting (July 1942)

• Congress Working Committee demanded immediate end of British rule.

🔹 Bombay Session (8 August 1942)

• Held at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay.
• Quit India Resolution passed.

🔹 Immediate Repression (9 August 1942)

🔹 Nature of the Movement

• Leaderless and spontaneous in many areas.
• Strikes and sabotage of government property.
• Attacks on police stations.
• Parallel governments established in:
  • Satara (Maharashtra)
  • Midnapore (Bengal)

🔹 Subhash Chandra Bose

• A popular and militant nationalist leader.
• Had ideological differences with Mahatma Gandhi regarding methods of achieving freedom.
• Believed in armed struggle and sought foreign assistance.

🔹 Formation of INA

• The Indian National Army (INA) was initially formed in 1942 by Mohan Singh from Indian POWs captured by Japan in Malaya and Singapore.
• In 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose escaped from house arrest and reached Singapore.
• He took command and reorganized the INA.

• Established the Azad Hind Government (Provisional Government of Free India).
• Recognized by nine Axis powers.

🔹 INA’s Military Campaign

• Fought alongside Japanese forces on the Arakan front.
• Advanced into Indian territory up to Imphal and Kohima.
• Campaign collapsed after Japan’s defeat in 1945.

🔹 INA Trials (Red Fort Trials, 1945–46)

• Three INA officers tried for treason at Red Fort, Delhi:
  • Shah Nawaz Khan
  • Prem Sahgal
  • Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon

1. Post-War Developments (1945–46)

(a) Labour Party Comes to Power (1945)

• In July 1945, the Labour Party defeated Churchill’s Conservatives.
• New PM Clement Attlee supported Indian self-government.
• Britain was economically exhausted after WWII.

(b) Elections in India (1945–46)

• Provincial & Central elections were held.
• Indian National Congress won most general seats.
• All-India Muslim League swept Muslim seats.

(c) Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (Feb 1946)

• Started in Bombay over poor conditions & racial discrimination.
• Spread to Karachi, Calcutta & other ports.
• Supported by workers and civilians.

2. Cabinet Mission (1946)

• Sent in March 1946 by British Government.
• Members: Pethick-Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.

Main Proposals

• United India (No immediate partition).
• Weak Centre controlling defence, foreign affairs & communications.
• Grouping of provinces:
  • Group A – Hindu-majority provinces
  • Group B & C – Muslim-majority provinces
• Formation of a Constituent Assembly.

Why It Failed?

• Congress opposed compulsory grouping.
• Muslim League demanded full Pakistan.
• League withdrew and called for Direct Action.

3. Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)

• Called by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
• Demand for Pakistan intensified.
• Massive riots in Calcutta ("Great Calcutta Killings").
• Violence spread to Noakhali, Bihar & Punjab.

4. Interim Government (1946)

• Formed in September 1946.
• Headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Muslim League joined later.
• Frequent administrative deadlocks.

5. Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)

• Announced by Lord Mountbatten.
• Accepted that partition was inevitable.

Key Provisions

• Division into India & Pakistan.
• Partition of Punjab & Bengal.
• Referendum in NWFP & Sylhet.
• Princely states free to join either Dominion.

6. Indian Independence Act (July 1947)

• Passed by British Parliament.
• Based on Mountbatten Plan.

Major Provisions

• Creation of two Dominions:
  • 🇮🇳 India
  • 🇵🇰 Pakistan
• End of British suzerainty over princely states.
• Abolition of Secretary of State for India.
• Constituent Assemblies to function as legislatures.